Different Things That Can Affect the Rights of an Individual

UNIT 10 Task 2. 1 List 4 different things that can affect the rights of an individual (2. 1) Explain how the things you have listed could affect the rights of an individual (2. 1) 1. Murder- murder is really a serious factor that really affects all the rights of an individual, because taking one’s life is taking also all of his rights. As what it is written by the Law, every individual has the right to live. 2. Slavery and Forced Labour- slavery still exists nowadays, particularly this forced labour where an individual is working without any payment and in an unlimited hour.Individuals are working to have a source of income, to subsidize everyday’s needs like foods and money. Blood and sweats of individuals are the greatest sacrifice of an individual in order to live and to face the hardships of living. 3. Respect and Privacy- invasion of privacy is taking away one’s freedom. Disrespecting an individual is degrading one’s rights. Privacy is very important thing owned by an individual, it is like a treasure that should be kept carefully and must be respected by the others.Others should respect others’ privacy as they respect their own because having each own privacy is having a smuch secured freedom. 4. Discrimination- discriminating makes an individual thinks unworthy of himself. It sometimes forces an individual to commit suicide that caused him to death. Death is the end of life, the end of an individual’s rights. Task 2. 2 Produce a booklet that explains how we should respect the rights of others in the workplace. We can demonstrate respect with simple, yet powerful actions. These ideas will help us avoid needless, insensitive, unmeant disrespect, too. Treat people with courtesy, politeness, and kindness. * Encourage coworkers to express opinions and ideas. * Listen to what others have to say before expressing your viewpoint. Never speak over, but in, or cut off another person. * Don’t think of yourself only, we should think of others too. * Use people’s ideas to change or improve work. Let employees know you used their idea, or, better yet, encourage the person with the idea to implement the idea. * Never insult people, name call, disparage or put down people or their ideas. Do not nit-pick, constantly criticize over little things, belittle, judge, demeanor patronize. A series of seemingly trivial actions, added up over time, constitutes bullying. * Never ever covet your co-workers’ belongings; it is also a way of respecting them. * Treat people the same no matter their race, religion, gender, size, age, or country of origin. Implement policies and procedures consistently so people feel that they are treated fairly and equally. Treating people differently can constitute harassment or a hostile work environment. * Include all coworkers in meetings, discussions, training, and events.While not every person can participate in every activity, do not marginalize, exclude or leav e any one person out. Provide an equal opportunity for employees to participate in committees, task forces, or continuous improvement teams. Solicit volunteers and try to involve every volunteer. * Praise much more frequently than you criticize. Encourage praise and recognition from employee to employee as well as from the supervisor. * Be always a humble co-worker for others. * Don’t show poker acts towards your co-workers. Respecting others is respecting you too. We should respect others for them to respect us too.

American Federation Labor

The Industrial Revolution marked a period of extensive growth in the American economy. One of the most prominent impacts of this era was the birth of organized labor and unions. For my post-Reconstruction research paper, I have chosen to explore the dawn of one of these prominent organizations that remain a lasting influence in some sectors of the American economy today. New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore were the first â€Å"mercantile† cities in the United States in the mid-17th century (Weil, 1998, p. 1335).From these cities sprouted the industrial roots of the country. Though American industrialization was really just an offshoot of the industrial revolution in Europe, it is interesting to note the rise of the industrial sector and the struggles of the working class in a country that in a hundred years would become a world superpower. The industrialization and mechanization which took place in United States between 1845 and 1900 gave rise to big businesses and m onopolies.From cotton and textile mills, shipyards and enterprises scattered all over the former British colonies, industries boomed and ascended the market-driven production system to a more competitive level. Through stiffening competitions between local and even foreign manufacturers, these marginal industries turned into industries that would eventually create other industries (Brinkley, 1995, p. 332). Essentially, industrial development brought jobs for immigrants and natives alike but because of a capitalist framework, profits gained were transformed into new industries, expanding the horizons of market productivity.These also resulted in the concentration of industrial capital and power into few hands. However, capitalism’s inherent feature, that to accumulate profit, several policies were taken to ensure such gain and it was only labor, in the context of political economy, that is flexible enough compared with fixed variables (raw materials, machine, rent). Manufactur ers and entrepreneurs reduced labor wages increased their working hours and appointed and dismissed laborers at will.Child laborers were employed, miserable working conditions were imposed, and wages and benefits were almost disregarded (Kersten, 2006, p. 42). This inevitably forced the laborers to join hands and act collectively. Workers’ campaigns for better working condition surged and deliberately altered the power hold of the ruling class of capitalists such as the Ten Hour movement – calling for ten hours of work a day , free distribution of lands to mitigate labor disputes, reform organizations asking for varying pleas like abolishing child labor, higher wages, and right to organize.Thus the inevitability of collision with state apparatuses obliged to maintain a social order (Greene, 1956, p. 48) All through the course of the American workingmen’s effort to impinge on humane working conditions, there were various attempts, peaceful and violent, to free th emselves from the shackles of unfair labor practices (Graebner, 1988, p. 276). From 1833 to 1834, the first attempts to set up laborers’ national solidarity movements and organizations were witnessed.In 1833, a political party, Workingmen’s Ticket, was formed to sponsor labor thought; and a national labor federation in New York City named the National Trades Union in 1834; a foremost national union of a particular employment, the National Cooperative Association of Cordwainers, in New York appeared simultaneously when a mechanics, farmers and workers’ convention wrote a Declaration of Rights and organized the Equal Rights Party in Utica in 1936 (Green, 1995, p. 523).However it would take another fifty years for the workers’ movement to finally assemble of a broad national union of toilers. The strike strategy of Knights of Labor, formed in 1869 by nine tailors in Philadelphia, turned violent (Missouri Pacific strike and the Haymarket Square Riot) and ulti mately the collapse of the KOL but it paved the way for a more organized effort for collective action. The KOL fought for eight-hour working day, ending child labor, equal pay for equal work, public land policy, and graduated income tax and to help tame the intemperance of capitalism.This resulted in the formation of a new organization-the American Federation of Labor (AFL) which was in favor of old federative plan and was opposed to the idea of one big union that in December 8, 1886, gathered in Druids’ Hall in Columbus, Ohio: They represented young unions like the Tailors, Bakers, Iron Molders, Bricklayers, and Printers. At the movement’s head stood three unions: the Cigar Makers†¦, Federation of Miners and Mine Laborers†¦, and the Carpenters.Most delegates had roots both in socialist organizations and in the Knights of Labor. Now, however, they wanted an organization that would place trade unions at the movement’s center, displacing politics and soc ial reform and guaranteeing autonomy to the various trades (Greene, 1956, p. 19). Originally, the Union was set up under the name of â€Å"Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of United States and Canada† by a New York cigar maker Samuel Gompers.Though FOTLU achieved victorious struggles proscribing cigar making in residential areas, won passages of legislation outlawing cigar-making in tenement houses, ruling out child labor under twelve years of age, and enforced education and banning prison labor, the union, nevertheless, failed to maintain a sufficient membership and support from various unions mainly because of many organizational setbacks that it lost the initiative of leading the working class. Thus, forming a new alliance of workers and tradesmen was a necessary move (Greene, 1956, p. 95). AFL was not composed of workers.Instead it was a federation of the national crafts unions. The federation harbored â€Å"business unionism† that unions have parts in the issues on business profits and economic growth of the nation (Taft, 1959, p. 84). It was beginning to gain the fruits of workers’ struggles and much like what various movements and reform organization have fought for years before were substantially achieved. But there were, again, some issues that the AFL miscalculated. First, Gompers and some of the founders of the AFL had socialist background but the new federation consequently became conservative.Distancing itself from the political issues of the labor movement, AFL settled only on the economic aspirations of the working class and has, consciously or not, deferred from the social concerns of the time. It was unable to tackle the racial issues and the state opposition to trade unions in the South which at that time were still decisive issues among the great number of African American and women, and that the issues inside the factories are not separate to the issues of civil rights. Needless to say that the political rift between and among the states were crucial for the activities of the existing unions (Fantasia and Voss, 2004, 172).Second, AFL was poorly equipped and financed to combat with large and technologically advanced industries, corporations and businesses. The past strategies bent on strikes and factory walkout were still employed, however, industrial firm became sterner, much rigid in dealing with restless workers that these capitalists had more resources to take unionists on their knees. The federation’s strategy mostly relies on lobbying and at some point enveloped in some tactical alliances with parties and politicians lenient to the labor movement like William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic presidential candidate in 1908 (Green, 1995, p.581). But it survived and serviced through collective action and the charismatic leaderships of its leaders. Various presidents of the AFL were in a battle constantly waged through the actions and participation of member unions and organiz ations. John McBride (1894-1895), William Green (1924-1952), George Meany (1952-1955), and Samuel Gompers who had served with the longest term as president from 1886-1894 and 1895-1924 guided the AFL in the course of its nascence, wartime and in peace.The federation’s lifeblood is very much in connection with the fibers of the nation’s economy that at critical times it has to go into agreements with the federal government that has recognized its relevant role and control in the leadership of United States’ working class. During World War I, AFL augmented its strength due to Wilson’s administration approval of unionization in return for their support in the war. It was Gompers who wanted to take into a very serious consideration the state of war readiness.Despite such positive acclaims, at the turn of the war public opinion was swayed by the business sector that trade unions would eventually incline towards socialism and oppose U. S. wartime interests (Zie ger and Gall, 1986, p. 299). The American Federation of Labor achieved various triumphs in the early twentieth-century and its memberships arose in the 1890s with the collapse of the Knights of Labor and from that point it has gained unprecedented primacy in the labor movement since its formation and the success of the AFL can be attributed to its founding leaders and the great leaders after them.Workers’ interest were inconceivably put forward with dedication that the prestige that the AFL earned will forever be embedded on the pages of the history of the American labor movement. Its triumphs and struggles were, surely, owed to the sacrifices of the workingmen. References Brinkley, A. (1995). American History: A Survey. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. Fantasia, R. , Voss, K. (2004). Hard Work: Remaking the American Labor Movement. California: University of California Press. Graebner, W. (1988). The American Record: Images of the Nation's Past. Vol. I: to 1877. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Green, J. W. (1995). From Forge to Fast Food: A History of Child Labor in New York State. Troy, New York: Council for Citizenship Education. Greene, J. (1956). Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881-1917. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Taft, P. (1959). The A. F. of L. : From the Death of Gompers to the Merger. New York: Harper & Brothers. Zieger, R. H. , Gall, G. J. (1986). American workers, American Unions: The Twentieth Century (The American Moment). Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh Essay

Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 1. Introduction : BANGLADESH IS QUITE RICH IN ETHNIC CULTURE. THERE ARE ABOUT THIRTY-FIVE ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY. THE MAJOR ETHNIC COMMUNITIES ARE CHAKMA, MURMA, GARO, SANTAL, HAJONG, TIPRA, KHASI, MURANG, SHENDHU, PANKO ETC. THEY STRUGGLE TO MAINTAIN THEIR LIFE STYLE, CULTURE AND PROTECT DISTINCT RELIGIOUS BELIEFS FROM THE INFLUENCE OF THE DOMINANT CULTURE AND RELIGIONS. IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH A NUMBER OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVE WHO STILL HAVE TO STRUGGLE HARD TO SUSTAIN THEIR ORIGINAL CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL HERITAGE. THE ADIVASIS IN THIS REGION COMPRISES OF SEVERAL GROUPS SANTAL, ORAON, MUNDA, MAHALI, MAHATO, MALPAHARA ETC. AMONG THE ETHNIC PEOPLE IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH SANTALS ARE LARGEST IN NUMBER. BUT THERE IS NO ACCURATE AND RELIABLE STATISTICS REGARDING THEIR ACTUAL POPULATION. THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL FIGURES AND ESTIMATES. ACCORDING TO THE GOVERNMENT CENSUS OF 1991, THE ADIVASI POPULATION WAS ESTIMATED 3,14,337 IN 16 ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICT OF THE RAJSHAHI DIVISION. BUT AS CLAIMED BY AN INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY LEADER, BADLA ORAON OF DINAJPUR ADIVASI ACADEMY, THE NUMBER OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN RAJSHAI DIVISION WAS 3,222,000 WAY BACK IN 1984. A SURVEY REPORT REVEALS THAT THE TOTAL POPULATION OF SANTAL IS 143932 IN DINAJPUR, RAJSHAHI, BOGRA, PABNA AND SOME OTHER AREAS OF BANGLADESH. ACCORDING TO THE OTHER SOURCES, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SANTALS ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN ESTIMATED. MOST OF THE SCHOLARS ALSO QUESTIONED THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE NUMERICAL DATA. IN THEIR OPINION, THE CENSUS TAKES LANGUAGE AS THE BASIS FOR IDENTIFYING ANY PERSON AS BENGALI OR INDIGENOUS. THEY HAVE ALSO ALLEGED THAT THE EXISTING POLICY IS TO SHOW THE NUMBER LOWER THAN THE ACTUAL NUMBER. 2 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. Historical Background of the Santals SINCE HOW LONG THE SANTALS LANDED IN THE TERRITORY OF PRESENT BANGLADESH, IS NOT PRECISELY KNOWN. SOME BELIEVE THAT THE KHERWARS REACHED THE LAND OF BENGAL IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE FIRST CLASHES WITH THE INVADING ARYAN TRIBES (2500 B. C. ). WITH EVERY PROBABILITY THE SANTALS LANDED IN BANGLADESH WITH THEIR ACTUAL ETHNIC IDENTITY, NOT AFTER 1000 B. C. IT IS PROBABLE THAT THE SANTALS SCATTERED THROUGHOUT BENGAL AT THE TIME OF THE MUSLIM INVASION OF THIS REGION DURING THE LAST DECADES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY OR AT THE BEGINNING OF THIRTEENTH CENTURY. IN THE WORDS OF FR. LUIZI PUSSETTO: â€Å"THE SANTALS RETIRED PROGRESSIVELY TOWARD MORE CALM REGIONS OR WHERE IT WAS MORE EASY TO DEFEND [THEMSELVES] FROM THE INVADERS†¦ † IN LATER TIMES, WITH THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855 UNDER THE BRITISH COLONIAL RULE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, WHEN 30,000 THOUSAND SANTALS ARE BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN KILLED, IT IS BEYOND ANY DOUBT THAT MANY OF THE SANTALS WERE DISPERSED INTO DISTANT LANDS AND GEOGRAPHICALLY ISOLATED TERRITORIES. MANY OF THEM EVEN CROSSED THE RIVER GANGES AND END UP IN THE EAST, THE PART OF PRESENT BANGLADESH. MANY THINK THAT THE EARLY SANTALS CAME TO NORTH BENGAL IN SEARCH FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE RAILWAY TRACKS WERE UNDER CONSTRUCTION during the British rule in the second half of the 19th century. This may be one of THE REASONS THAT MOST SANTALS IN BANGLADESH ARE FOUND SETTLING ON BOTH SIDES OF THE RAILWAY LINES FROM NORTH TO SOUTH. 2. 1 THE NAME â€Å"SANTAL†: REGARDING THE NAME SANTAL, OPINIONS DIFFER AMONG THE SCHOLARS. FOR SKREFSRUD, THE NAME SANTAL IS A CORRUPTION OF SAONTAR, AND WAS ADOPTED BY THE TRIBE AFTER THEIR SOJOURN FOR SEVERAL GENERATIONS IN THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT IN MIDNAPUR. W. B. OLDHAM OPINED THAT SANTAL IS AN ABBREVIATION OF SAMANTAWALA, WHICH HAS ITS ETYMOLOGY FROM SANSKRIT SAMANTA, ANOTHER NAME GIVEN TO THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT. O’MALLEY IS OF THE OPINION THAT SANTAL IS AN ENGLISH FORM ADOPTED FROM HINDI WHICH CORRESPONDS WITH THE FORM SAOTAL USED BY THE BENGALI SPEAKING PEOPLE. MOST ANTHROPOLOGISTS AGREE THAT SANTAL IS A NAME GIVEN TO THIS TRIBE BY NON-SANTALS. HOWEVER, SANTALS PREFER TO CALL THEMSELVES HOR MEANING â€Å"HUMAN BEING OR PERSON. † FOR THE SANTALS THE CONCEPT HOR BEARS A RICH CONNOTATION TO MEAN A PERSON WITH QUALITIES OF INTELLECT, OF KNOWLEDGE, OF WISDOM; THEY REFER THEMSELVES AS A TRIBE WITH DIGNITY AND FULL HUMAN POTENTIALITY. THE SANTALS ARE PROUD OF THEIR IDENTITY THAT DEFINES THE TRAITS OF SOLIDARITY AND UNIQUENESS AS A GROUP. 3 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. 2 ORIGIN, RACE, AND LANGUAGE: AS TO THE â€Å"ORIGIN† OF THE SANTALS, VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN FOR CERTAIN. THE SANTALS HAVE NO RECORDED HISTORY. LIKE OTHER ANCIENT SOCIETIES, SANTALS HAVE TRIED TO EXPLORE THE MYSTERIES OF CREATION, HISTORY AND LIFE BY MEANS OF MYTHS AND LEGENDS. FOLLOWING THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA, SOME AUTHORS CLASSIFY SANTALS AS PRE-DRAVIDIAN AND OTHERS AS PROTO-AUSTROLOIDS; AND OTHERS AS ABORIGINALS OF THE NORTHWEST. THUS, THE OPINIONS IN THIS RESPECT ARE VERY DISCORDANT. THE SANTALS DO HAVE THEIR OWN MYTHOLOGY OF CREATION AND MANY BELIEVE THAT THEY ALL HAVE COME FROM PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI, WHICH IS LIKE ADAM AND EVE IN THE BIBLE. SANTALI IS THE MOTHER TONGUE SPOKEN BY THE SANTALS. IT IS A MUNDA LANGUAGE OF THE KHERWAR GROUP THAT BELONGS TO THE MUNDA-MON-KHMER OR ‘AUSTRO-ASIATIC’ SUB-FAMILY. BUT THERE ARE OTHER DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THIS TOO. ACCORDING TO N. PRASAD, â€Å"SANTALI IS THE RICHEST DIALECT AMONG ALL THE TRIBAL DIALECTS OF BIHAR. † 2. 3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: IN BANGLADESH, THE SANTALS ARE FOUND MOSTLY IN NORTH BENGAL (NORTHERN PART OF BANGLADESH) ESPECIALLY IN THE THEN GREATER DISTRICTS OF DINAJPUR, RANGPUR, BOGRA, AND RAJSHAHI. ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1881, THE SANTALS RESULTED PRESENT IN THE DISTRICT OF KHULNA, PABNA AND CHITTAGONG IN THE SOUTH. MANY SAY THAT THE SANTALS, WHO ARE IN SYLHET, ARE THE ONES WHO MIGRATED FROM THE DISTRICTS MENTIONED ABOVE AND CAME HERE MAINLY TO WORK IN THE TEA GARDENS AS LABORERS. IN SHORT, THE SANTALS OF BANGLADESH ARE ALMOST ALL DERIVED FROM THOSE EMIGRATED FROM THE SANTAL PARGANA IN INDIA AND NOTHING DISTINGUISHES THEM FROM THOSE WHO ARE STILL LIVING THERE, WITH THE EXCEPTION, PERHAPS OF THE USE OF BANGLA WORDS THAT ARE SANTALIZED. IN RECENT TIMES SOME OF THE BANGLADESHI SANTALS ALSO STARTED GOING ABROAD TAKING EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES. 4 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 3. THE WORLDVIEW THE SANTALS ARE SIMPLE AND UNSOPHISTICATED PEOPLE. LIKE ANY OTHER PEOPLE, THE SANTALS HAVE DEVELOPED THEIR OWN WORLDVIEW, A SYSTEM SUITED TO DEAL WITH THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND ITS MEANING. THEY HAVE PERCEIVED THE ENIGMA AND THE BASIC DICHOTOMY OF HUMAN EXISTENCE—LIFE AND DEATH, GOOD AND EVIL FROM THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVE. FOR THE SANTALS, LIFE, HEALTH, WEALTH, PROSPERITY, HAPPINESS, TRIBAL SOLIDARITY, RELIGIOUS BELIEF, MORES, ETC., ARE â€Å"GOOD†; AND DEATH, ILLNESS, POVERTY, MISFORTUNE, INJURY ETC. ARE â€Å"EVIL†. THEIR RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IS MEDIATED THROUGH THEIR CULTURE AND ARE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF SYMBOLS, METAPHORS, MYTH, LEGENDS, FOLKLORE, SONGS, CULT, RITUALS AND SO ON. THE Santals consider Th kur Jiu ? (Life Giver) or Cando Baba (Sun Father) or Marang BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) AS THE SOURCE OF ALL â€Å"GOOD†; WHILE IT IS THE â€Å"EVIL EYE†, THE â€Å"evil mouth† and the b ric’ bonga ? or malevolent spirits who cause harms in human LIFE. THEREFORE, WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE SUPREME BEING, THEY ALSO PROPITIATE THE BONGA IN AN ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF SUFFERING, SICKNESS, AND OTHER CRISIS. ALL THESE QUITE OFTEN LEAD THEM TO SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS AND GIVE RISE TO PROMINENCE OF THE FEAR OF THE BONGA. FOR THE SANTALS EVERY NEWBORN CHILD COMING FROM THE INVISIBLE AND SHADOWY WORLD NEEDS TO BE PURIFIED, IDENTIFIED AND INTRODUCED TO THE SANTAL SOCIETY. MUCH OF SUCH REALITIES ARE EXPRESSED THROUGH THE RITUAL CEREMONIES PERFORMED AFTER A CHILD IS born. The ritual of the janam ch ti r? ? (birth purification and name-giving ritual) is ONE EXAMPLE WHERE THESE ASPECTS ARE ENACTED THROUGH BATHING, SHAVING THE HEAD OF THE BABY, DIVINING OF ARWA RICE (UNBOILED RICE) GRAINS AND WELCOMING OF THE BABY BY THE COMMUNITY. THE DEATH PURIFICATION CEREMONIES LIKE FUNERAL RITES OF BHANDAN, OR MORA KARAM (AFTER-DEATH CELEBRATION) PROVIDE FURTHER DETAILS OF THE SANTAL-BELIEF SYSTEM THAT THE DEAD PERSON GOES BACK TO THE SAME SPIRIT-WORLD OF LIFE FROM WHERE HE/. SHE HAD COME AS A BABY AND REMAINS DEFILED AND DEFILING, FOR WHICH REASON NOT ONLY THE FAMILY THAT NEEDS PURIFICATION, BUT THE VERY RETURN OF THE DECEASED PERSON TO ITS ORIGINAL STATE OR SHADOWY-WORLD IS ALREADY DEFILING BECAUSE IT IS A TRIBELESS-STATE, CONDEMNED AND SINFUL STATE AND BECAUSE IT HAS BEEN CREATED FOR THE PUNISHMENT OF THE SINS OF GREED AND PRIDE. HENCE, THE DECEASED PERSON NEEDS TO BE BROUGHT BACK 5 |P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SPIRITUALLY TO HIS/HER OWN FAMILY AND IS INSTALLED AS AN INVISIBLE MEMBER AS HAPRAM (ANCESTOR). THE DECEASED, ALTHOUGH INVISIBLE, REMAIN A PERMANENT MEMBER OF THE FAMILY AND ARE REMEMBERED AND RESPECTED DURING ALL THEIR FAMILY OCCASIONS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT â€Å"WHEN [A] HUMAN BEING BECOMES PERFECTLY FREE FROM ALL GREED AND PRIDE THIS STATE WILL BE REMOVED AND THAT WILL BE THE NEW CREATION, WHICH IN CHRISTIANITY MAY BE COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF SALVATION. FOR THE SANTALS, THERE IS NO CLEAR DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE SACRED AND THE PROFANE, RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS, SPIRITUAL AND THE MATERIAL AREAS OF LIFE. ANIMALS AND THE MATERIAL WORLD ARE AT THE DISPOSAL OF HUMAN BEINGS FOR THEIR SELF-PRESERVATION AND WELL-BEING. MOREOVER, SANTAL-LIFE IS CLOSELY RELATED TO NATURE AND TO THE WHOLE OF CREATION. LAND AND FOREST REMAIN UNITED WITH SANTAL-IDENTITY AND ARE VERY MUCH REFLECTED IN THEIR LIVES, LOVE, POETRY, SONGS, DANCE AND MUSIC. THE SANTALS, FOR EXAMPLE, ADDRESS TO THE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† AS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER) AND THE STARS TOO HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES. ACCORDING TO ARCHER, â€Å"ALTHOUGH FIELDS, HOUSES, MEN AND WOMEN SEEM TO CONSTITUTE A SANTAL VILLAGE, SANTALS REGARD THEM AS AT MOST A PORTION OF THEIR TOTAL WORLD. † 6 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 4. THE SANTALS IN THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITIES 4. 1 THE SANTAL-VILLAGE: THE SANTAL VILLAGE IS A PATTERN OF SANTAL LIVING AND IT IS THE MOST TRADITIONAL AND ANCIENT INSTITUTION, WHICH CRYSTALLIZES THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RITUAL STRUCTURES. IT COMES INTO EXISTENCE THROUGH THE SPECIAL DISPENSATION OF THE BONGA AND IS SANCTIFIED BY THEIR BLESSINGS. THE PRESENCE OF DIFFERENT CLANS IN A VILLAGE DEMONSTRATES THE BEAUTY OF A COMMUNITY LIVING AND OBVIOUSLY THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION ITSELF IS A SIGN OF INCREDIBLE RICHNESS OF THE SANTAL SOCIETAL DEALING AND LIVING. A SANTAL VILLAGE IS DEMARCATED WITH AN IMPLICIT BOUNDARY SO THAT IT MAY REMAIN FREE FROM OUTSIDE INTERFERENCE OF EVIL SPIRITS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT QUARRELS AMONG FAMILIES AND GROUPS IN THE VILLAGE, NATURAL CALAMITIES, SICKNESS, EPIDEMICS, ETC. , ARE CAUSED BY LACK OF BALANCE BETWEEN THE FORCES OF GOOD AND EVIL. 4. 2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SANTAL VILLAGE: THE PRIMARY FEATURE OF EVERY SANTAL VILLAGE IS THE â€Å"MANJHI COUNCIL† OR THE VILLAGE COUNCIL HEADED BY A MANJHI (HEADMAN). THE VILLAGE COUNCIL IS THE REPRESENTATIVE BODY OF THE COMMUNITY CONSISTING OF SEVEN OFFICIALS, NAMELY: MANJHI, PARANIK (A DEPUTY HEADMAN), JOG MANJHI (AN OVERSEER OF THE VILLAGE ON MORAL ISSUES), JOG PARANIK (ASSISTANT TO JOG MANJHI), GODET’ (A MESSENGER), NAEKE (A village priest), and his assistant is Kud m Naeke?. These OFFICIALS IN FACT ARE THE SERVANTS, NOT THE MASTERS OF THE village and their role is purely functional. The M njhi? remains as the overall LEADER OF THE VILLAGE COUNCIL AND PRESIDES OVER THE VILLAGE MEETING BUT WITH THE ACCEPTED PRINCIPLE THAT NO ONE OVERRULES ANY ONE ELSE. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE CATEGORICALLY DIVIDED AMONG THE MEMBERS IN ORDER TO AVOID ANY OVERLAPPING. THE COUNCIL MEMBERS PERFORM THEIR FUNCTIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR TRIBAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. THE PATTERN OF THE VILLAGE GOVERNANCE OF THE SANTALS IS MOSTLY DEMOCRATIC IN CHARACTER LIKE ANY OTHER DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTION. HOWEVER IN PRESENT TIME, WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE GOVERNMENT-SPONSORED UNION PARISAD (LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL) THE SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE TRADITIONAL m njhi ? council of the Santals is mostly undermined. 7 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh FOLLOWING THE PATRIARCHAL PATTERN, THE MANJHI (LEADER) OF THE VILLAGE FOR THE SANTALS, IS ALWAYS A MALE. THE TITLE OF THE MANJHI IS GENERALLY HEREDITARY AND IT IS PASSED ON PATRILINEALLY. NOW-A-DAYS, THE MALE MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE MAY ELECT OR EVEN SELECT THEIR OWN HEADMAN UPON COMMON CONSENSUS. THE TERM OF OFFICE IS INDEFINITE BUT CAN BE ALTERED BY GENERAL AGREEMENT ACCORDING TO THE NEED. ALTHOUGH THE OFFICE OF THE HEADMAN IS VOLUNTARY AND HONORARY IN NATURE, THE MEMBERS OF THE MANJHI COUNCIL ARE RESPONSIBLE TO THE COMMUNITY FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR SOCIAL MATTERS. 4. 3 THE CLANS: SANTALS ARE ENDOGAMIC AS A PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY CANNOT GET MARRIED OUTSIDE THEIR TRIBE, BUT THEY ARE EXOGAMIC AS CLAN BECAUSE THEY CANNOT BE married between the same clan (p ris? ). Traditionally the Santals used to have FOSTERED A TOTAL OF TWELVE CLANS BUT UNFORTUNATELY IN THE COURSE OF HISTORY ONE HAS BEEN MISSING. THE CLANS ARE: 1) BASKEY, 2) BESRA, 3) CORE, 4) HASDAK’, 5) Hembrom, 6) Kisku, 7) Marandi, 8) Murmu, 9) P uria, 10) Soren, 11) Tudu, and ? 12) BEDEA (THE LOST ONE). MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLANS ARE TO REGULATE MARRIAGE, INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION AND AFFILIATION (ALI 1988; ALSO HOSSAIN 2000). ONE BECOMES A CLAN MEMBER BY BIRTH. IT IS SAID THAT THESE CLANS ARE HIERARCHICALLY ORDERED ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION, LIKE: Kisku raja (king), Marandi Kipis r ? (wealthy or richer), Murmu Th kur ? (priest), Soren Sip hi ? (warrior), Tudu M nd ri ? ? ? (musician), and so on and so forth. HOWEVER, ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCHER, THESE OCCUPATIONAL HIERARCHIES OF STATUS DO NOT HAVE ANY IMPACT ON THE SANTALS IN DAILY LIVES. 4. 4. FAMILY AND MARRIAGE: FAMILY IS THE PRIMARY UNIT OF HUMAN SOCIETY. THE FAMILY AMONG THE SANTALS CAN BE TERMED AS OF BIOLOGICAL, JOINT, AND EXTENDED. A. HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND THEIR UNMARRIED CHILDREN FORM PART OF THE BIOLOGICAL OR NUCLEAR FAMILY. A HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND HIS MARRIED AND UNMARRIED SONS AND DAUGHTERS AND SOMETIMES HIS OLD PARENTS, BROTHER AND HIS FAMILY FORM PART OF THE JOINT FAMILY OR EXTENDED FAMILY TYPE. ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, MARRIAGE IS AN UNION BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN, WHICH IS SOCIALLY RECOGNIZED; CULTURALLY AND RELIGIOUSLY IT ALLOWS THE COUPLE TO LIVE IN A FAMILY. A SANTAL MARRIAGE CAN BE DESCRIBED ALSO AS A LEGAL TRANSFER OF DEPENDENCY OF THE 8 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh BRIDE, FROM HER FATHER’S FAMILY TO THE GROOM’S FAMILY. BY THIS TRANSFER, THE GROOM’S FAMILY DOES NOT ONLY ASSUME GUARDIANSHIP BUT ALSO ASSUMES CONTROL OVER ALL HER AFFAIRS. THROUGH MARRIAGE THE BRIDE LOOSES HER PATERNAL LEGAL IDENTITY AND ACQUIRES THE IDENTITY OF THE GROOM’S FAMILY. IN THE INSTITUTIONAL SENSE, MARRIAGE IS THE PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN REGULATED BY CUSTOMARY LAWS THAT ENHANCE LEGAL UNION BETWEEN THE SEXES AND DEFINE THE PROCEDURES FOR ESTABLISHING THE HUSBAND-WIFE RELATION, THE RECIPROCAL OBLIGATIONS AND THE ACCEPTED RESTRICTIONS UPON ITS PERSONNEL. AS TO THE ORIGIN AND INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE CREATOR. HIMSELF HAS ESTABLISHED MARRIAGE. THAT IS, THE THAKUR JIU WHO CREATED THE FIRST HUMAN PAIR (PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI) HAS ALSO INSTITUTED MARRIAGE. ALTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME INSTANCES OF POLYGAMY, MONOGAMY IS THE NATURE OF MOST SANTAL MARRIAGES. BESIDES SERVING SEXUAL NEEDS AND PROCREATION OF HEIRS, A SANTAL MARRIAGE HAS ALSO OTHER PURPOSES, SUCH AS COMPANIONSHIP, FORMATION OF FAMILY, ECONOMIC SECURITY, COOPERATION IN THE FAMILY ENTERPRISE, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SECURITY, ETC. THUS, SANTAL MARRIAGE IS NOT ONLY BETWEEN TWO PERSONS OF OPPOSITE SEX BUT IT ALSO BECOMES A BOND OF UNION BETWEEN TWO FAMILIES, TWO VILLAGES, AND. ALSO INFLUENCES THE CIRCLE OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE RELATIVES. M. A. JALIL MENTIONS FOUR TYPES OF MARRIAGE AMONG THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH. THESE ARE: 1) DANGWA BAPLA (CONTACT MARRIAGE), 2) ANGIR BAPLA (LOVE MARRIAGE), 3) OR BAPLA (FORCE MARRIAGE), AND 4) ITUT’ BAPLA (TACTICAL MARRIAGE). MOREOVER, SANTALS DO HAVE EXCEPTIONS ESPECIALLY IN THE CASE OF MARRIAGE BETWEEN CANDIDATES OF THE SAME CLAN. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN THE MARRIAGE OF A YOUNG COUPLE OF THE SAME CLAN FOR A VALID REASON BECOMES NECESSARY, AND CONSANGUINITY OR AFFINITY DOES NOT PREVENT IT, THEY APPLY A JURIDICAL PRETENSE. IN SUCH CASE, AN ELDERLY COUPLE OF A DIFFERENT CLAN, ADOPTS THE BRIDE AS THEIR DAUGHTER THROUGH A SIMPLE RITUAL CEREMONY AND GIVES THE PROPER NAME TO HER. 4. 5 ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES: THE SANTAL SOCIETY IS MARKED WITH FEASTS, FESTIVALS AND RITUAL CELEBRATIONS. ONE OF THE TERMS OFTEN used by the Santals is r sk? ? meaning happiness, or joy, WHICH IS NOT ONLY DEAR TO THEIR HEARTS BUT IS PART AND PARCEL OF THEIR LIFE. THUS, WE FIND DANCING AND SINGING HAVE A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE AT EVERY FESTIVAL OCCASION. IT BRINGS A SANTAL TO FORGET WORRIES AND STRESSES OF HIS OR HER 9 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh DAY-TO-DAY LIFE. IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SANTALS, FEASTS AND FESTIVALS HAVE GREAT SIGNIFICANCE FOR THESE ARE THE LIVING EXPRESSION OF THE DEEP ASPIRATION OF JOY AND HAPPINESS, AND ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE FEELING OF COMMUNITY AND SOLIDARITY INTEGRATED AS PART OF THE NATURE OF THE SANTALS. MANY OF SUCH CHARACTERISTICS ARE EXPRESSED IN SONGS, MUSIC AND IN DANCE. IN FACT, THE SANTALS DON’T GIVE ANY SPACE TO INDIVIDUALISM AND IT IS REALLY DURING THE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL REALIZES HIMSELF OR HERSELF IN THE COMMUNITY AND HIS OR HER FUTURE ROLE IN THE LIFE OF. THE COMMUNITY. ALTHOUGH, MOST OF THESE FESTIVALS SEEMINGLY APPEAR AS MERE GATHERING OF CLOSE FRIENDS AND RELATIVES, INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SUB-CLAN OR THAT CONCERN ONLY THE INHABITANTS OF A VILLAGE; YET, THERE ARE ALSO OCCASIONS THAT INVOLVE MORE VILLAGES, AS IT USUALLY HAPPENS ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGE WHEN PARTICIPATION IS MOSTLY UNANIMOUS. IN ANY OF THESE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, THERE ARE CERTAIN RITES AND RITUALS BEING FOLLOWED OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY SIMPLE OFFERING AT THE CENTER. ABLUTIONS AND UNCTION OF OIL, THE USE OF VERMILION TO MARK THE SACRIFICIAL VICTIM AND EVEN BEING USED BY THE. PARTICIPANTS, BEARS A GREATER SIGNIFICANCE. IN FACT, SOME OF THESE FESTIVAL PERFORMANCES CONSIST OF SOME SORT OF WORSHIP OR FOLK CULTS. FROM THE RITES AND FESTIVALS OF THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE CLEAR THAT THEIR ECONOMIC LIFE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND RITUAL PERFORMANCES ARE INTERWOVEN MAINLY AROUND AGRICULTURE. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE ASPECTS OF MATERIAL LIFE MUST BE PROTECTED AND GUARDED BY APPROPRIATE RITES AND FESTIVALS; AND BONGA (SPIRITS) MUST BE SATISFIED BY GIVING THEIR DUE SHARES. MANY OF THE SOCIO-CULTURAL FESTIVALS AND RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS INDICATE THAT SANTALS. HAVE DEEPER INSIGHTS THAT GO BEYOND MERE EXTERNAL CELEBRATIONS. HOWEVER, DUE TO THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THIS STUDY, WE ONLY MENTION SOME MAIN ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES COMMONLY OBSERVED LIKE: SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA (FLOWER festival), Erok’ (sowing of rice seeds in the field), Iri-Gundli N wai? (offering of THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE MILLET IRI), JANTHAR (OFFERING OF THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE WINTER RICE CROP). SANTALS ALSO HAVE OCCASIONAL RITES AND FESTIVALS, WHICH ARE NEITHER ASSOCIATED WITH AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS NOR PERFORMED ANNUALLY. SOME OF THESE ARE: JOM SIM, MAK’ MORE AND KARAM. 10 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REALITIES 5. 1 OCCUPATIONS AND LIVING: TRADITIONALLY SANTALS ARE MAINLY AGRICULTURISTS. THEY CLING TO THEIR LAND AS THEIR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION AND MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. ABOUT 95% OF THE SANTALS ARE INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. INDUSTRIOUS AND HARDWORKING AS THEY ARE, UNFORTUNATELY THE SCIENTIFIC SIDE OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CULTIVATION AND MANAGING THEIR LAND HAS NOT BEEN DEVELOPED. IN THE PAST THE MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS WERE LANDOWNERS, BUT DUE TO THE INCREASE IN POPULATION, EXPLOITATION BY MONEYLENDERS AND LANDLORDS, ILLEGAL. OCCUPATION OF THEIR LAND, POVERTY AND ILLITERACY, NATURAL CALAMITIES ETC. THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH HAVE LOST THEIR LAND PROPERTIES. AT PRESENT, NEARLY 80% OF THE SANTALS ARE LAND-LESS, FORCING THEM TO EARN THEIR LIVELIHOOD DEPENDING ON THE MERCY AND AVAILABILITY OF WORK IN THE FIELDS OF THEIR MUSLIM OR HINDU NEIGHBORS FOR THEIR MERE SUBSISTENCE. YET, IT IS SIGNIFICANT TO NOTE THAT TRADITIONALLY THERE ARE NO BEGGARS AMONG THE SANTALS. RATHER, THE SANTALS IN THE TIME OF DIRE POVERTY GO TO THE JUNGLE TO COLLECT WILD PLANTS, FRUITS, WILD POTATOES AND ROOTS OF YOUNG SHOOTS, FLOWERS, MUSHROOMS, ETC. HUNTING AND FISHING THAT USED TO BE PART OF SANTAL-LIVING, HAVE NOW BECOME SECONDARY IMPORTANCE DUE TO THE CHANGE OF SITUATION. LACK OF EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE VILLAGE AREAS, ALSO FORCED MANY SANTALS TO FLOCK TO THE NEARBY TOWNS AND CITIES IN SEARCH OF DAILY WAGES AND JOBS. THE WOMEN IN SANTAL SOCIETY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILIES BUT IN REALITY THEY REMAIN DEPRIVED OF THEIR EQUAL RIGHT, WHICH IS REFLECTED BY THE FACT THAT WOMEN ARE NOT ELIGIBLE FOR THE INHERITANCE OF PROPERTIES. SANTALS HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND TO BE INTERESTED IN COMMERCE OR ANY SUCH PROFESSION. TO AVAIL OF ECONOMIC SELF-RELIANCE. THIS IS ONE OF THE REASONS WHY THEY REMAIN RATHER MARGINALIZED INVITING POVERTY IN THEIR LIVES. MOREOVER, MOST SANTALS DO NOT THINK ABOUT FUTURE, RATHER THEY ARE MORE CONCERNED FOR THE DAY; IT’S A DAY-TO-DAY LIVING AND THEY REMAIN SATISFIED AND HAPPY WITH THE LITTLE THEY CAN HAVE FOR MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILY. HOWEVER, DUE TO SOME PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, A SMALL NUMBER OF SANTALS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO MAKE LITTLE CHANGES IN THEIR WAY OF LIVING. 11 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SOME HAVE TAKEN UP MODERN PROFESSIONS LIKE TEACHINGS, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, JUDICIAL ADVOCACY, NURSING ETC. 5. 2 POLITICAL REALITY: SANTALS, A PEACE LOVING PEOPLE HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND INTERESTED IN POLITICS. YET, THEY HAVE ALWAYS REACTED WHEN THINGS WENT SEVERELY PAINFUL AND THEY WERE PUSHED AGAINST THE WALL WHEN THEY COULD NOT BEAR ANYMORE. THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855-56, THE TEBHAGA ANDOLON (SHARE CROPPERS’ MOVEMENT) IN 1945, AND THE NACHOL BIDROHO (FARMERS’ REVOLUTION) IN THE YEAR 1950, ARE THE CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF THE PAST. IN FACT, SANTALS HAVE ALWAYS BEEN USED BY OTHERS IN THE FOREFRONT BATTLE. ILLITERACY, ABSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL SET UP AND LACK OF GENUINE. LEADERSHIP HAVE KEPT THE SANTALS FAR FROM ACHIEVING ANY END RESULT. IN RECENT YEARS, SOME OF THE SANTALS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO TAKE ACTIVE ROLE IN THE LOCAL POLITICS BY THEIR PARTICIPATION IN THE LOCAL ELECTION. 12 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. BELIEFS AND RITUAL PRACTICES 6. 1 THE BELIEF IN ONE SUPREME BEING: AS IT HAS ALREADY BEEN MENTIONED EARLIER, SANTALS DO BELIEVE IN ONE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† WHOM THEY CALL THAKUR JIU (LIFE GIVER) OR MARANG BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE â€Å"SUPREME† AMONG ALL THE â€Å"RELIGIOUS BEINGS†. THE MOST COMMON SANTAL-TERM USED FOR THE SUPREME BEING. THESE DAYS IS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER). ACCORDING TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE RESEARCHER THE SANTALS HERE DO NOT REFER LITERALLY TO THE SUN ITSELF RATHER, IT IS AN EXPRESSION OF A DIVINE ACTIVITY: EXPRESSION OF DIVINE LOVE IN RELATION TO HUMAN BEINGS. FOR THE SANTALS, CANDO BABA IS A BENEVOLENT DEITY WHO ORGANIZES THE DAYS AND NIGHTS AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR HEAT AND COLD, RAIN AND SUNSHINE; AND FROM A DWELLING ‘SOMEWHERE IN THE SKY’, ALLOTS EACH SANTAL A TERM OF LIFE HERE ON EARTH. BUT, HE STAYS FAR AWAY, FAR ABOVE THE SKY AND CANNOT BE REACHED. IT IS UNDERNEATH. THE SUN, BENEATH THE CLOUDS, THAT SANTAL LIFE IS CHALLENGED. HERE THE BONGA ROAM AROUND AND ONLY BY COMING TO TERMS WITH THEM CAN SANTALS BE HAPPY. 6. 2 THE BELIEF IN BONGA (SPIRITS): THE SANTALS BELIEVE IN THE EXISTENCE OF THE SPIRITS WHO ARE CALLED BONGA. THE BONGA HAVE MUCH REPERCUSSION ON DAILY LIVING OF THE SANTALS. TO ENSURE THEIR CONTINUING CARE, BESIDE ANNUAL SACRIFICES, THE BONGA ARE REMEMBERED IN A DAILY BASIS. WHENEVER A MEAL IS TAKEN, A SMALL PORTION OF THE FOOD IS DROPPED ON THE FLOOR FOR THE BONGA, OR AT THE TIME WHENEVER RICE-BEER IS DRUNK, A LITTLE IS SPILT ON THE GROUND FOR MARANG BURU. THUS, THE SANTALS LIVE NOT ONLY IN THEIR TRIBAL SOCIETY BUT IN A GREATER SOCIETY CONSISTING OF SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AS WELL. IN PRACTICE, THE SANTALS OFTEN USE THE TERM BONGA MEANING â€Å"TO INCORPORATE† SOMEONE INTO THE SOCIETY BY DOING CERTAIN RITUAL. THE PHRASE USED IN THIS CASE IS: BONGA TALA KEDEAKO MEANING, HE/SHE HAS BEEN ADMITTED INTO SANTAL SOCIETY. ACCORDING TO THE SANTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEF THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONGA—THE MALEVOLENT AND THE BENEVOLENT ONES. THE BONGA-WORSHIP IS PRIMARILY TO PLEASE AND TO INVOKE THE POWERS OF THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND TO AVERT THE ILL WILL OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA. IN THE WORSHIP OF BONGA WE CAN DISTINGUISH ANALYTICALLY TWO INTERRELATED ASPECTS: 13 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh A) THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT OF THE RELIGIOUS RITES IS TO HAVE AN ALLIANCE WITH THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND THEREBY CONTROLLING OR EVEN DEFEATING THE POWERS OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA; AND B) THE EXPRESSIVE ASPECT OF THE WORSHIP IS MANIFESTED THROUGH VARIOUS SEASONAL AND RELIGIOUS RITES, FESTIVALS AND RITES ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS SOCIAL RITUALS. SANTALS HAVE AN INNATE RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR BONGA AND CONSIDER THEMSELVES LIVING WITH THEM. THIS RELATIONSHIP IS MOSTLY OF DEPENDENCE, SUBMISSION, PROPITIATION AND REVERENTIAL FEAR. THE SANTALS DO SUPPLICATIONS; OFFER RICE-BEER; AND ANIMAL SACRIFICES IN THE NAME OF THE BONGA. IT IS WORTH MENTIONING THAT THERE ARE INSTANCES AMONG THE SANTALS IN THE RURAL VILLAGES WHERE PERSONS EVEN IN TIME OF SERIOUS SICKNESS WOULD NOT LOOK FOR MEDICAL HELP INSTEAD LEAVE IT TO THE BONGA TO BE CURED. 6. 3 BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT: RELATED TO SANTAL BELIEF-SYSTEM, IS ALSO THE EXISTENCE OF WITCHES. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES TO HARM PEOPLE, CATTLE, AND CROPS. THESE SO-CALLED WITCHES ARE INVOLVED IN DOING HARMFUL ACTIVITIES LIKE GIVING POISONS, TAKING OUT HUMAN LIVERS, SENDING TROUBLESOME SPIRITS TO CERTAIN FAMILIES AND CHANGING THEMSELVES INTO BLACK CATS. BECAUSE OF SUCH BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT PRACTICES, THE SANTALS EASILY SUSPECT ONE ANOTHER, AND ARE OFTEN LED TO FIGHT. IT IS PRESUMED THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO HAVE SUCH A BELIEF ESPECIALLY IN THE PAGAN WORLD. HOWEVER, THERE IS ALSO A COUNTER-BELIEF AMONG THE SANTALS THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE OJHA-JANGURU (SPECIALISTS), MAINLY MEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING WITCHES AND NULLIFYING THEIR SPELLS. THUS, WHENEVER SANTALS GET INTO TROUBLE, THEY SEEK THE HELP OF THESE PEOPLE WHO, MORE OFTEN EXPLOIT THE SOCIETY. REFERRING TO THE SICKNESS AND OTHER PROBLEMS, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE CAUSED BY THE EVIL SPIRITS WHEN THEY BECOME DISSATISFIED WITH THE SACRIFICES OF THE PEOPLE OR WHEN THEY THINK THAT THEY ARE BEING MANIPULATED BY SOME EVIL-MINDED PEOPLE (WITCHES). THEREFORE, THE SANTALS TRY TO IDENTIFY THE AGENTS OF THE TROUBLE THROUGH THE HELP OF OJHA–JANGURU AND TRY TO PACIFY EACH AGENT THROUGH VARIOUS SACRIFICES. 14 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. 4 THE ANCESTORS: FROM THE RITES AND RITUALS AS PRACTICED BY THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE EVIDENT THAT ANCESTOR-WORSHIP IS A COMMON FEATURE AMONG THEM. THE DEAD ANCESTORS ARE THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE FAMILIES OR GROUPS TO WHICH THEY BELONGED AND THAT THEY ARE EASILY APPROACHABLE BY THEIR LIVING KINSMEN. HENCE, AT ALL IMPORTANT OCCASIONS OF BIRTH, OF MARRIAGE OR OF DEATH THE DECEASED ANCESTORS ARE REMEMBERED AND OFFERED SACRIFICES. 6. 5 THE JAHERTHAN OR THE SACRED GROVE IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A SANTAL VILLAGE. IT IS A SACRED PLACE OF SPECIAL WORSHIP FOR THE SANTALS. AFTER A VILLAGE HAS BEEN SET UP, A JAHERTHAN IS INSTALLED THROUGH RITUAL CEREMONY AT THE OUTSKIRT OF THE VILLAGE. THE MAIN DEITY OF THE JAHERTHAN, IS KNOWN AS JAHER ERA (THE LADY OF THE GROVE). ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, SHE RESIDES THERE BESIDES OTHER IMPORTANT DEITIES SUCH AS THE MOREKO-TURUIKO (LITERALLY MEANS †FIVE-SIX†). THE JAHER ERA PRESIDES OVER THE SACRED GROVE, TENDS OVER OTHER BONGA IN THE JAHERTHAN AND LOOKS AFTER THE INTERESTS OF THE VILLAGERS ESPECIALLY FOR THEIR PHYSICAL NEEDS. THE SPIRITS OF THE JAHERTHAN ARE WORSHIPPED DURING THE PRINCIPAL FESTIVALS, LIKE SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA. (FLOWER FESTIVAL), EROK’ (SOWING FESTIVAL), AND SO ON FOR THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR OBTAINING GOOD CROPS AND FOR THE HEALTH OF THE VILLAGERS AND THEIR LIVESTOCK. 6. 6 The M njhithan? or the altar of the headman is placed along side the kulhi (VILLAGE ROAD) OR OFTEN AT THE CENTRAL PLACE OF THE VILLAGE OR IN FRONT THE HOUSE OF THE M njhi? (the headman). It is believed that the Manjhi bonga (spirit of the headman) RESIDES IN THIS ALTAR AND ACTS AS THE SPIRITUAL ADVISER OF THE HEADMAN. HERE THE M njhi? offers sacrifice for the benefit of himself, his family and for the whole. VILLAGE. 6. 7 THE â€Å"HOUSE-ALTAR†: IN THE INNER SIDE OF A SANTAL HOUSE, THERE REMAINS THE bhit r, ? a tiny compartment, which is the darkest space of the house. It is the abode OF THE ORAK BONGA (HOUSE SPIRITS) OR OFTEN KNOWN AS ABGE BONGA—THE BONGA OF THE SUB-CLAN. THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY DOES THE WORSHIP. IN ANY OCCASION OF THE FAMILY AND SOCIAL FESTIVALS, FOOD OFFERING IS MADE ON THIS ALTAR. THE NAMES OF THE ORAK BONGA ARE NOT REVEALED TO OUTSIDERS AND EVEN TO THE FEMALE MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE RATHER, HANDED DOWN FROM FATHER TO SON. USUALLY THE ELDEST SON RECEIVES THE NAME FROM HIS FATHER. 15 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh The bhit r? is also used as a secret place to germinate and to store h ndi ? (rice beer), WHICH IS NOT ONLY USED AS NORMAL DRINK BUT ITS USE IS SIGNIFICANT AND EXTENDED TO SOCIO-CULTURAL RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS, AND EVEN THAT TO BE OFFERED TO SATISFY THE BONGA. 6. 8 THE â€Å"AFTER-LIFE† IS THE CONTINUATION OF LIFE THAT IS LIVED IN THIS WORLD. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE SPIRIT OF THE DECEASED GOES TO A SHADOWY WORLD WHERE THE PERSON REQUIRES THE MATERIALS OF THIS WORLD. THIS IS WELL EXPRESSED WITH THE RITUAL PRACTICES DONE AT THE TIME OF BURIAL AND DURING THE BHANDAN, THE LAST CEREMONY DONE IN HONOR OF THE DEAD. IN THE PAST, IT WAS PERFORMED IMMEDIATELY AFTER ALL THE REQUIREMENTS HAD BEEN FULFILLED FOR THE DECEASED PERSON, BUT IN PRESENT DAYS SUCH CEREMONY, IN A RICH FAMILY, IS DONE WITHIN TWO OR THREE MONTHS FROM THE DEATH AND IN A POOR FAMILY, IT IS ONE YEAR OR TWO. FOR THE SANTALS, THE MORE NUMEROUS ARE THE ANIMAL-VICTIMS OFFERED IN HONOR OF THE DEAD DURING THE BHANDAN, THE MORE WOULD BE THE ANIMALS THAT THE ANCESTOR WILL HAVE IN THE OTHER WORLD. MOST ANIMAL-VICTIMS ARE DONATED BY THE RELATIVES AND NONE OF THEM ARE TO BE SPARED FOR FUTURE USE BY THE FAMILY CONCERNED. TRADITIONALLY EVERY SANTAL, MALE AND FEMALE, IS SUPPOSED TO BEAR UNDELETABLE SCARS on the body. For the male, it is the sik? that must be at least three scars REPRESENTING JION (LIFE), MORON (DEATH), AND JION (LIFE). THE SANTAL WOMEN DO NOT practice sik? , but to escape to be devoured by the worms in the life-after, they have THEIR CHEST TATTOOED, WHICH IS CALLED BY THE SANTALS KHODA. FR. PUSSETTO, WITH HIS VAST EXPERIENCE WITH THE SANTALS TESTIFIED: I HAVE NOT ONLY SEEN SANTAL WOMEN TATTOOED ON THE CHEST BUT ALSO ON THE BACK, ON THE FACE, ON THE ARMS AND ON THE LEGS; THE TATTOO WERE ENOUGH COMPLICATED, BUT PURELY ORNAMENTAL†¦THE TATTOO WILL SERVE TO THE WOMEN TO BE RECOGNIZED FROM THE RESPECTIVE HUSBANDS IN THE OTHER LIFE. IN THE PRESENT TIMES THE YOUNGER GENERATION OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH DOES NOT practice sik ? or khoda or rather these have become voluntary. However, every SANTAL CHILD BEARS NEEDLE-EYE WHOLES IN HIS/HER TWO EARS TO USE ORNAMENTS WHEN THEY GROW UP AND ESPECIALLY AT THE TIME OF HIS/HER MARRIAGE. 16 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 7. MORALITY IN SANTAL CONCEPTION FOR THE SANTALS, MORALITY MEANS RIGHTFUL DOING AND LIVING; AND REMAINING TRUE AND LOYAL.

Follow the Rabbit Proof Fence

‘This free-spirited girl knew that she and her sisters must escape from this place’. What characteristics did Molly display which enabled the sisters to escape and return to their families? Not only is this book about how three little aboriginal girls travelled across half of Australia but is also teaches us how the aboriginals were treated. Throughout Doris Pilkington’s and Nugi Garimara’s novel, the protagonist Molly, has a set of characteristics that help her and her two cousins escape from the re-education camp for half-casts, she is strong mentally when she was bullied, she is knowledgeable because she was able to cross half of Australia with no map or compass, and she is very loyal and emotionally attached to her land. When Molly was only about four years, she was constantly bullied because she was a half-cast, but besides these constant insults, she was strong and kept positive. Because she was neither a Mardu nor wudgebulla and was regarded as a mongrel dog and wasn’t liked by the aboriginal children so she threw â€Å"handfuls of sand or stones and threw them at her tormentors, and sometimes she chased them with a stick. † But as she got older she â€Å"became used to the insults, and although they still hurt, she didn’t show it. † This shows Molly’s mental strength against her bullies and tried to stay positive even though she â€Å"Wished that she didn’t have light skin so that she didn’t have to play by herself. She is also mentally strong because for three young girls to travel from Perth to Jigalong, she needs to be in the right mindset and be positive because she was determined to get back because she needed to see her family. Not many people could and would be able to do this but these girls especially Molly were brave and persistent and kept their head up. So it can be said that Molly is mentally st rong because she is able to beat her bullies and go back home to Jigalong. When Molly and her two cousins escape the camp, she is faced with an enormous walk without a compass or map, but Molly has grown up in this land and knows what to do and where to go. She â€Å"had no fear because the wilderness was her kin. † This means that the wilderness is her family which â€Å"always provided shelter, food and sustenance. † She also memorised which was they travelled so she knew to head north and to follow the rabbit-proof fence. With her developed bushcraft skills and survival techniques she was able to lead her two cousins through traitorous terrain and back home and also lead the tracker and constable Rigs to the wrong places. Therefore it can be said that throughout the novel, Molly uses her knowledge of the land to get back home safely with her cousins and remove their tracks. Throughout the novel, we see that Molly is very loyal and emotionally attached to her land. We see this when Molly and Gracie were walking through the country when they were almost home and they are pointing out special places to each other, for Molly it was a â€Å"Quick trip down memory’s landscape† which â€Å"A feeling of nostalgia brought tears to her eyes. † This shows how much she missed and appreciates the land she grew up in and shows us how loyal she is to it. It means so much to her and like in the movie ‘Kanyini’ without it she is nothing. So it can be said that Molly is loyal and emotionally attached to her land especially when it gets taken away from her. Throughout the novel written by Doris Pilkington and Nugi Garimara, Molly has a set of traits which help her and her cousins escape the re-education camp, travel a substantial distance and get back to Jigalong safely. It was her inner strength, her knowledge of her land and her emotional attachment to her land. We can also learn from this book that someone cannot take from others even if they think it is the right decision. Doris Pilkington and Nugi Garimara tell us just one of many stories that has happened to many of the stolen generation and it makes us think about it.

Defining Leisure and Recreation Essay

Leisure is a general term and just like an umbrella, covers the terms, sport, recreation and play. Leisure is the overall term. Below is a diagram to help explain the relationship between leisure, recreation, sport and play: On the continuum between play, recreation and sport, there are a varied level of effort and seriousness. Play is a non-serious form of leisure and sport is very serious. Leisure can be very difficult to define. It is said to be the time spent outside of working commitments and other daily necessities. It can be spent doing anything that an individual would like to do. It is said to be called ‘free choice’. It is our ‘free time’ and is a complete opposite to work. There are many characteristics of leisure including your state of mind. Your state of mind is how you decide to spend your leisure time whether it is shopping or whether it is playing sport. Leisure may not always be relaxing but it has an aftermath of relaxation and a good feeling. Leisure may be active or passive depending on our state of mind. An example of a passive leisure activity is watching television. You are not active as you are only sat down watching television but it is a very popular leisure activity. An example of an active leisure activity is football. You are very active and you are running around. Leisure activities can also be home-based or away from home. An example of a home-based activity can be listening to music in the home and an example of an away from home activity could be going to the pub. Leisure is enjoyable and can be done anywhere. A quote from Collins Advanced Vocational textbook of Leisure and Recreation says, â€Å"Leisure can be defined as the time that an individual sets aside for activities or pastimes outside work or other necessities such as sleeping.† A-Z OF LEISURE ACTIVITIES ARTWORK NATURE SEEKING BIRDWATCHING ORIGAMI CAMPING PUB DANCING QUIZZES EXCURSIONS READING FAMILIES SHOPPING GARDENING TELE HOLIDAYS UNDERWATER ACTIVITIES INTERNET VISITS JOGGING WATERSPORTS KNITTING XYLOPHONE PLAYING LISTENING TO MUSIC YOUTH CLUBS MUSEUMS ZOOS All the above activities are activities that are done in our leisure time. They are taken out when we do not have work, or everyday duties like sleeping and eating. Recreation is also a free choice activity and is often active. It is more structured than leisure and is not usually done at home. Recreation implies enjoyment and the skill level does not matter. Recreation has a flexibility of rules and is very purposeful as it ‘re-creates the individual’ or ‘re-charges the batteries’ ready for work. Hobbies are usually productive with skill levels increasing with more practice. Recreation has a moral element and has a good attitude about it. Examples of recreation are swimming, stamp collecting and gardening. They are all ‘creating’ something, hence the word ‘recreation’. Swimming creates a stronger person, stamp collecting creates a larger stamp collection and gardening creates a nicer garden. Recreation is defined as, â€Å"the type of activities undertaken for enjoyment or relaxation during a person’s leisure time.† There are physical and passive recreational activities. Physical activities are playing sport, playing music instruments and gardening. Passive activities are watching television, listening to music and playing computer games. ‘Home-based’ recreational activities are cheaper, for example, reading library books is free and eating at home is much cheaper than eating out. It is also non-dependent on anyone else whereas going to a restaurant would involve other people. A quote from Kaplan in 1975, says, ‘Activity voluntarily engaged in during leisure and motivated by the personal satisfactions which result from it†¦a tool for mental and physical therapy.’ This is a very good quote to describe the definition ‘recreation’. Play can also be very hard to define as many people have different views on what play is. Although a major football team play football every Saturday, competitive football is actually counted as sport. An example of play is ‘tig’. ‘Tig’ is a game that can be played anywhere and does not have certain rules or boundaries. Play is very spontaneous and can be done on the spare of the moment. It can be played in the garden and is not competitive. It is make-believe and is often done to get away from the real world. There are no age boundaries and adults and children can play. Play is not very important and has a low level of skill. It is not compulsory and is a free choice what an individual decides to play. Playing does not have to be physical. An example of a non-physical game is playing cards. Whilst playing, no certain skills are being taught but people can learn new things whilst playing. Play can be defined as, ‘Activities from which you get immediate pleasure without ulterior motive.’ This quote was taken from There are many skills learnt by children through play such as physical skills like how to pass a ball properly in football. Other skills are cognitive skills, environmental, social and moral skills. An example for a cognitive skill is where you decide on a decision quick enough to react to it, for example, when an opponent comes towards you dribbling the ball, it is a cognitive skill that is used to decide whether you go and tackle them or not. An environmental skill is where you pick up from people what is the best way to care for the environment and the area around you. Social skills are how you learn to react around each other, how you learn to be friendly with one another and learn how to communicate in the appropriate manner, for example, a social skill learnt through play is shaking the opponent’s hand after a game. Moral skills are the way you act to other people and the manners use. For example if someone gives you something, you say ‘thank you’. You know it is morally correct to thank the person. This is an example of a moral skill. Play is the opposite of sport. Sport has many characteristics and can be defined as the most physical of leisure’s field of study’s. It can be very successful and competitive. Sport has a high level of skill and a high level of fitness. There are strict rules on and off the pitch. For example, on the pitch, one rule in football is that you are not allowed to tackle an opponent from behind. A rule off the pitch is that players are not allowed to take drugs. In sport, the outcomes are important as it may be for a league, cup or tournament. There are qualified officials that have an important role in the game. There are many people who play sport as a job, therefore, are professional sports players. In sport there are tangible rewards such as the F.A. Cup in football. Sport is formal as it has organised dates and times when sport is going to take place. There is a lot of effort put into sport and a lot of work is put into practising for the sport. For each sport, there is a National Governing Body just like the Football Association in football and the Sports players do still find it enjoyable as it is rewarding and fun to participate in. The word ‘sport’ stems from the Latin word, ‘disportare’ which means ‘to carry away’. Sport across the world is seen very serious and top sports players even put themselves through pain and emotion to succeed. A definition of sport is, ‘Any physical activity which has the character of play and which takes the form of a struggle with oneself or involves competition with others is a sport.’ This quote was taken from There are many factors that affect the participation of people in leisure and recreation activities. One of the most important factors are our peers. They can have a big influence on whether we do or do not participate. For example, if our friends really enjoy playing sport, you will be more influenced to take part also. But if our friends have the attitude that playing cricket is boring and we would be much better going to the cinema instead, you would be influenced in thinking the same. Other influences can be by your parents. If your parents are behind you in playing sport and buy you equipment and transport you, they will be influencing you into deciding to play sport. If you decide you would like to play football for your local team and need some football boots and your parents will not buy you them, you may decide not to play as you do not possess the equipment to play. A big influence on participation can be the opportunities you have around you. If the school you go to has a very good range of extra-curricular activities and has contacts with clubs in the area, you will be more influenced in taking part. If you have a higher opportunity to participate then there is a higher chance that you will participate. The area in which you live will influence you as well as there may be great facilities in the area or there may be none at all. A big influence in which activity we decide to participate in can be role models, such as Michael Owen in football, Steve Redgrave in rowing and Paula Radcliffe in running. These are all professional and very successful sports players that have a big influence on what sport we participate in. They are all very good at there own activities and our skill level can also influence us in our participation. For example if you know and feel you are good at an activity, you will want to take part in it more often that in an activity that you are not so good at. Some people have a lot of leisure time whereas other people have very little, this can also influence us on our participation as there may not be activities going on at the time you want to participate in. Our culture can also have a big influence on what activity we decide to take part in. For example, if your Granddad, Uncle and Dad all were good footballers, you may decide to take part in football, as it is a ‘family tradition’. Other influences in our participation can be our medical conditions and our disabilities. For example, a person in a wheelchair would not be able to play in the Premiership. A major influence on our participation in leisure activities is our wealth and our disposable income (our money we have left after we have paid for all our necessities), Many leisure activities cost money to participate in so if we do not have much money to append, this may affect our decision in what we do. There are many things that influence our participation such as our sex. Netball is seen as a women’s sport and men do not play. Although women play football, their status is nothing compared to men’s football. There are rules that say men and women cannot play football together from the age of 11. The lack of men’s netball teams and the lack of women’s football teams can influence our participation in certain leisure activities. Our level of fitness can also influence our choices as if we were very tall and very fit, we may decide to play a sport like basketball but if we had very strong arms, we may decide to choose to take part in rowing. Media can have a very big influence in our participation as it has a big influence in our lives. When you read the back pages of tabloid newspapers, you usually find that most of the pages are about football, because there is so much talk about football, you may be influenced in participating, just like if on the news, they say that it is bad to take part in basketball because you can hurt your ankles, you may be influenced in taking part in another sport. The marital status of an individual can also influence participation. If you are married with children, your leisure time will be reduced as you have more daily necessities like picking up the children and caring for them. Car ownership can have a major influence in participation also as if you have a car, it will be easier to access places that you cannot get to by public transport. As shown above, there are a great number of influences in participation, whether it is friends or medical conditions.

American Express Swot Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Express Swot Analysis - Essay Example From there on the company focused on global expansion and gradually became popular for its financial products like the charge card. (â€Å"Our History†, 2009). In the present era American Express is one of the payments company with world wide presence and is also a well known brand in the financial world. The brand is built on the values such as trust, quality, security, integrity and superior customer services. (â€Å"Our History†, 2009). Since the year 1850 American Express as a company has followed and conducted their business operation based on several guidelines and value propositions. The company’s core value is customer commitment. The company focuses on gaining customer confidence through extensive relationship making programs. The primary and the main strength of the organization is their ability to diversify their operations also side by side generating revenues. As we look into the history of the firm we could observe that the company has strategically adapted several diversification policies which had made it possible for them to sustain in the market. The company started its operation as an express company is now among the top players in the financial market scenario. Product innovation wise also the company claims its advantage. The company launched its new holiday gift card which is unique in its name and design qualities celebrating Hispanic culture and providing gifts for Christmas Eve and the day itself, the New Years and also the three King’s Day. (â€Å"Celebrating Hispanic Culture with the Felicidades Holiday Gift Card†, 2009). This example does not only show the product variety and range that the company offers, but it also reveals the company’s focus on the large custome r base that it usually caters to. Time to time the company successfully delivers diversified products and services and expands its range with much authority in the global market.

Electric and Magnetic Fields Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Electric and Magnetic Fields - Essay Example Electrical charges and magnets are found to exert forces upon distant objects, thereby altering the region of space surrounding them. The altered space becomes the force field  eventually and through this effect, the body is able to respond to its local environment enabling distant objects to react across space by the nature of the forces caused by the fields. A magnet or an electric charge responds to the field made by the objects immediately within its reach. Equivalently, a massive object can establish a  field of gravity upon which distant entities manage a certain degree of exertion. Though magnetic fields  function hand in hand with electric fields, specific properties distinguish one from the other. The notion of field lines and magnetic fields in existence was initially studied by the English scientist Michael Faraday  (1791-1867) then further by  James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), both of whom pioneered remarkable discoveries of electromagnetism in several aspects.  Maxwell proposed that ‘if a changing magnetic field can make an electric field, then a changing electric field, as via an oscillating electric charge for instance, should make a magnetic field’. Under these circumstances, the changing electric and magnetic fields would activate each other and move at a speed approaching the speed of light. Base on such grounds with empirical findings, Maxwell came up with the theory that light  is  an electromagnetic wave which was given proof by the experiments conducted after his time. Figure 1 - Electric Field (Red) and Magnetic Field (Blue) Since the electric power has been of chief significance to living, humans have engaged themselves into conception of possibilities to obtain higher potentials and benefits with electric and magnetic fields given constant exposure to them. Scientists have long understood even during the 19th century that there exists special connection between electrical fields and magnetic fields which may be experienced everywhere on earth. Moving electric charge (electric current) can induce magnetic field. As such, coils of wire can serve as large electromagnets used in car junk yards in the same way that electric motors can be used to start a car engine or spin a computer’s hard disk. This phenomenon explicates as well how ordinary magnets are derived from tiny currents at the atomic level. An electrical current or electric field is formed by an altering magnetic field which creates electromagnetic waves in the process. Power generator manufacturers utilize this principle to have large coils of wire bear the expected capacity of yielding magnetic field whether by falling water, wind, or steam by burning coal or oil, and even by through the heat coming from nuclear reactions whenever feasible. Audio and video tapes and compact disks, similarly, are capable of encoding information in magnetic patterns whereby magnetic directions and magnetic strengths are alternating. When a magnetic disk or tape material happens to pass near wire coils of any size, electrical currents or fields are generated. Because magnetic fields are regions where an object exhibits magnetic influence, the same object acquires the potential to attract or repel a neighboring magnetic body along the magnetic field lines. It must be noted, however, that magnetic forces have nothing to do with  gravity and the amount of gravity depends upon an object's mass whereas magnetic strength is a function

Seven Birds for Seven Brothers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Seven Birds for Seven Brothers - Essay Example 3. From the musical, gender relations have been demonstrated in the movie where the females are expected to be well-behaved. The girls were expected to be good cooks and carry themselves with dignity. Males, on the other hand, are expected to be hard working and provider in the family. The setting of this musical shows â€Å"man’s world†. For instance, Fred Bixby owns store while his wife works with him. Milly works in a local bar where she is expected clean after the customers. 4. The clips on youtube of the Seven Brides for Seven Brothers have captured the spirit of the original movie to the extent where they create a clear picture of the original film. The musical numbers used are appropriate for the scenes. The filmed musical uses location and beautiful scenery to try and bring out which would be impossible in a live musical. 5. My favorite musical number is Bless Yore Beautiful Hide. It talks of what kind a wife, Adam. The song brings out the qualities of a woman Adam would like. From the song, one can tell the performer is looking for a wife to

XMGT WK4 DISCUSSION THREAD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

XMGT WK4 DISCUSSION THREAD - Essay Example Any mistake with this multinational petroleum company which obviously has other banks wanting to transact with them will be a mistake. This is because it will not only prove the two years negotiations futile and useless but also will deter any future deals with this company and other companies which will hear of the deal that went sour. Even though the decision is hard to make, only one thing is left to do and that is to consider the priorities and future of the company more than the future of one individual despite the individual being a senior member. Try to reason with Julie to leave the meeting but arrange for her to have future meetings with other multinational companies which are have no cultural issues. Explain that losing the deal will be a loss even to her and people will blame her, hence she should just withdraw from the meeting and let the men handle it (Schermerhorn,

Systems Media Table Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Systems Media Table - Assignment Example For instance, it can be used by small business, house record or as a phone directory The Hospital information system records manage, stores, manipulate and display the patients, medicine, doctors, beds and other resources record. Furthermore, the hospital management system is helpful in complete handling and running the administrative, financial and clinical operations of the hospital. Specialty information system technology offers a lot of different types of services. Specialty information system offers services for a lot of areas for example in proprietary or specialized processes connected to IT applications (e.g. project management, systems planning, network administration, database design, systems integration, network engineering, helpdesk support etc.). Administrative information systems offer facilities and supports in business/enterprise-wide requirements managing, maintaining and implementing the human resources and administration to finance, budgeting, payroll, research, time and effort reporting, etc. The main purpose of the operation support system is to deal with the telecom network based supporting processes like that provisioning services, maintaining network inventory, managing faults and configuring network components. A documentation system is a set of computer programs that is utilized to keep track and store electronic documents. The documentation system is also used to manage and handle the images of paper documents. Basically, these systems are used by organizations, business, and institutions for basic content management. In addition, these systems are used with the incorporation of digital asset management, enterprise content management (ECM) systems, workflow systems, document imaging, and records management systems.

Marketing Plan for a Business Plan Proposal - Entrepreneurship Course Essay

Marketing Plan for a Business Plan Proposal - Entrepreneurship Course - Essay Example Later, â€Å"The Track Tablet† company can expand into broad geographical areas. 1.2 Product Strategy Anything that is received by a person in exchange for the money that is paid by him is a product (University of Texas Arlington, â€Å"Product Decision†). The product has been designed to permit the guest to make use of the hotel services such as the room service, book spa appointments, enjoy the concierge services, restaurant reservation and order the taxis. Renting of the movies, virtual library, and downloading of the newspapers and magazines will also be possible. However, it has to be mentioned that the product will not replace the reception and human contact since it is the key for success in the hospitality sector. 1.3 Pricing Strategy Pricing can be considered as the most vital aspect of any marketing plan. However, it is vital to keep a watch upon the pricing strategies since the business environment is volatile. In addition to this the move of the competitors need to be gauged. Pricing of the new product needs to consider various aspects to remain competitive (Cravens, W. C. & Piercy, N. F., â€Å"Strategic Marketing†). Initially, it would be better for â€Å"The Track Tablets† to adopt the penetration pricing strategy. ... Strategy Distribution strategy is considered to be one of the vital aspects of marketing that tends to identify the marketing activities that need to be followed by the companies in order to deliver the products to the customers of the firms. Decision regarding the warehousing, choice of the marketing related channels, order processing and inventory control need to be considered (Boone, L. E. & Kurtz, D. L., â€Å"Contemporary Business†). Initially, the product will aim at providing the services to the higher luxurious hotels. After a certain period of time when the product gains awareness amid consumers, it will be beneficial to introduce the product towards the less luxurious hotels. The product will be provided at a few chains all over the world. A few intermediaries can be employed in order to distribute the product to the target market of the world. Intermediaries can assist in smooth flow of the product and thus can reduce the time gap between the consumers and the produ cers. 1.5 Advertising and Promotion Initially, the focus of the advertising campaigns will be upon targeting the high luxurious hotels. The campaigns will assist in gaining awareness among the target customers. Since the products are quite complex in nature and requires investment, it would be prudent for the marketers to send the products for test marketing. The products will be distributed at a few selected hotels that aim at providing their guest with a different experience. This will assist the company to learn the reaction of the customers towards its products. Test marketing will provide the company with the abundant of information. Later, the product can be made available to the customers requiring it (Graham, H. & Et. Al., â€Å"Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning†). Through

Tiny Little Pieces Fiction pretending to be non-firction Essay

Tiny Little Pieces Fiction pretending to be non-firction - Essay Example Another thing that should be noted is the ability of writers to think about things that could likely take place in some years to come and compile these as works of fiction. Some writers even produce science fictions that are futuristic in nature and while some of these are not happening at the moment, they could be closely related to reality in years to come. These set of science fiction writers produce works based on the scientific developments on ground and try to use their works of fiction to predict what could likely take place in the nearest future. Thus, the closeness of fiction to reality is largely dependent on the writers’ imaginative strength and their ability to think outside the box. It is really very difficult to decide whether or not to call works of literature non-fiction when they are closely related to reality. As explained above, works of fiction are borne out of the imaginative power of the writer and they are works that describe make-believe people and even ts. Non-fictional works are writings that contain facts about the events that take place in reality and are not primarily based on the imaginative ability of the writer. According to Marcus, the differences between non-fictional and fictional narratives are illogical, because â€Å"fact or reality shares the same form as fiction or narrative† (244). There are actually some works of fiction that the fictional elements are used as symbols to represent the events that take place in reality and this means that these so called, ‘works of fiction’ have some elements of reality embedded in them. Though, the people and the events in these works of fiction could be closely related to the ones in reality, this does not necessarily mean that they could be called non-fictional works. As long as these works have some elements of imagination in them and the writers have not claimed that they are based on reality, they should still be termed as works of fiction. Hence, works of literature should not be called non-fiction, even though there are some elements of reality in these messages of fiction. There are some liberty authors that have tried to convert works of fiction into non-fiction and one of them is James Frey in his Million Little Pieces work. Several critics condemned James Frey for converting a fictional work into non-fiction in his Million Little Pieces. Though, Frey has claimed that he did this in order to present a compelling account of the things that he saw around him, but the fact that Frey made it look like he was the one that experienced the things that were presented in his book leaves little to be desired. It is clear that Frey did these in order to arouse the emotions of the readers, but this is actually against the ethics of writing. Frey’s inability or refusal to acknowledge the real source represents another dimension of plagiarism, which is an abuse against writing ethics. It was even after the book had received wide acclai m that it was discovered that Frey invented the major events in the book and he never really experienced them. The fact that Frey tried to convert a work of fiction into n

5 Questions About 3 Ethical Case Studies Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

5 Questions About 3 Ethical Studies - Case Study Example Moreover, in addition to ethics, the officers are expected to uphold values, principles and morals while according their duty to the public. Therefore, this case study will greatly help when examining the outlined issues. How much material is available for your research in each topic? This case study is going to rely on information available on http://www.wsws.org/articles/2011/nov2011/davi-n19.shtml . In addition, documented evidence in the university and the California State Police will also be used. To supplement this, the police force ethical conducts will be used as the base line to judge the ethical issues. Case Study 2: 20 children among 26 victims of Connecticut school shooting This case is aimed at evaluating the moral standards as well as, the phycology behind good values, principles and ethics. This study will help the research based mainly on the social-cognitive theory (Aldama, 2011). Therefore, the case study is aimed at discovering what may trigger people to act the way they do. In addition, the study is aimed at seeking how people perceive or react to their actions. How much material is available for your research in each topic? This research will be sourced from the article, 20 children among 26 victims of Connecticut school shooting.http://www.cnn.com/2012/12/14/us/connecticut-school-shooting/index.html . Moreover, additional material will be gathered from related article and eventualities. In addition, books and earlier studies on social-cognitive theory will be used so that a good case can be built for this study. This study will be very helpful because it will help when one wants to judge why a person may act in a given manner be it ethical or unethical. It will further help to evaluate the consequence and the acceptance of the victim in the case that they act unethical. For example, Should they take responsibility or what actions are supposed

Legal Disabilities of Women and Letters on the Inequalities of the Essay

Legal Disabilities of Women and Letters on the Inequalities of the Sexes - Essay Example â€Å"Man has inflicted an unspeakable injury upon woman, by holding up to her view her animal nature, and placing in the background her moral and intellectual being† (Grimke 2). From this statement, the woman has placed in the back in regard to her intellectual and moral being; she is viewed by her animal nature and not on her human being nature. The woman further worsens the situation by submitting to such derogatory statements. The author states that â€Å"woman has inflicted an injury upon herself by submitting to be thus regarded; and she is now called upon to rise †¦ and claim those sacred and inalienable rights, as a moral and responsible being †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Grimke 2). The being of the woman is like that of a slave and it is absorbed by her master. Grimke (1) asserts that â€Å"all contracts made with her, like those made with slaves by their owner, are a mere nullity†. This indicates that any contract made between the man and the woman is futile; it cannot work since the woman has no legal rights. This can be illustrated by the following statement where men have convinced women that they do not possess any rights to investigate or examine the laws; â€Å"they have persuaded us, that we have no rights to investigate the laws, and that, if we did, we could not comprehend them; they alone are capable of understanding the mysteries of Blackstone, &c† (Grimke 1). The woman has been left by the man in regard to taking care of the family needs. The money that has been acquired through the marriage is spent by the man the way he pleases. â€Å"Yet a man may spend the property he has acquired by marriage at the ale-house, the gambling table, or in any other way that he pleases† (Grimke 2). From this statement it is clear that the woman has no right over the property spending. She toils hard to support the family regardless of her

Cross-National Work Experience Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cross-National Work Experience Interview - Essay Example The second part is a reflection of what I learned from the interview. One of the most revealing answers was on how Joseph believes culture affects the way management decisions are made in Kenya and in the U.S. and the specific aspects of culture that he could identify. Joseph noted that the potential to engage in an unethical decision such as seeking ways to avoid tax compliance is more common in his former station in Kenya than in the U.S. According to him, the tendency is almost inexistent in the U.S. The Kenyan system offers lesser supervision to tourism activities, thereby allowing greater room for manipulation of records, including misreporting of income. Employee motivation is another area where the two countries appear to have completely distinct approaches. Tips are a common way of motivating the ‘tour-crew’ after completing assignments. Due to the nature of the industry, individual employees are often assigned to individual tourists for specific assignments such as driving to a destination and mountain climbing. In Kenya, managem ent allows employees to settle ‘tip’ queries with the customers without reporting the same to management. However, tips form a basic part of the remuneration of employees in the American culture. The interviewee further noted that formal communication in the U.S entity he works for is mainly through email for non-urgent issues to promote reference, while phone calls, text messages and direct communication are more prevalent in Kenya. As a result, the U.S. entity has a sizeable collection of emails, offering reference to how strategic decision making is effected, especially during times of crises. By contrast, there were no established guidelines on how to deal with specific types of crises in his former station, which implies that the authority in charge is free to offer a solution as it deems wise. By

Racial issues in Cleveland, Ohio Personal Statement

Racial issues in Cleveland, Ohio - Personal Statement Example The board worked with labor unions, civil rights groups, as well as industries with the sole aim of improving the conditions of black employees. Federal and state officials first opposed this idea as they deemed that it would lead to chaos. They believed that the formation of this board would herald tensions in most parts of the United States (Miller & Anthony 20-190). Accomodationism refers to having a belief that dwells on having a common ground in people who have a similar belief in supernatural beings. The black leaders who supported the actions undertaken by opposing groups had a phenomenal impact on the fight against racial profiling. These leaders led groups of blacks in addressing the issues faced by the African Americans. In Cleveland, accommodationism ensured that African Americans presented their grievances to the relevant authorities. This strategy succeeded as religious leaders used the church to address the problems faced by the blacks. Under the umbrella of religion, black leaders were able to address the concerns of African Americans (Miller & Anthony

Immigrant Question Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Immigrant Question - Research Paper Example These are the immigrants from Asia, Africa and South America, the less powerful continents of the world, in terms of finance and geopolitics. These immigrant laborers are paid very low wages and have been reported to become victims of human rights violations many times, in the USA. The companies who employ them have also been accused of being insensitive to environmental concerns as much as they are to humanitarian concerns. This study is an attempt to find the root causes of the immigration problem by linking these two aspects based on a paradigm of sustainable development.Especially, the immigrants from South America have been employed in huge numbers by the multi-national companies which have ventured into mining, farming and railroad industry in the USA (Sheppard and Barnes, 294). What is the factor that made people from the developing world of South America to immigrate to USA (even illegally) facing risks even to their lives and why do they opt for the lower paid jobs and discr iminatory existence in an alien land, is the primary question that has to be addressed in this regard. The one and only logical answer to this question are that they had been deprived of their livelihoods in their native lands. And the cause of this phenomenon easily connects back to the intervention of the US capital in these countries, as will be made clear in the following part of this study. The companies who employ the immigrant workers in the USA have a notorious history of exploiting nature and human resources (Cooke, 52).

Online education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Online education - Essay Example With advanced technology, the world today has adopted everything to be digital. With learning institutions not left behind, today traditional form of learning is being replaced with online learning.Many higher learning institutions and colleges are offering Massive Open Online Courses where students register and learn online. Initially, people get updated with dynamic changing demands in profession, education, industries and commerce. There is more use of blogs, e-portfolios, and smart phones, projectors among others (Zane and Lin 357). Online education is widely used by people aging between 30 years and above since they find it hard to be in a classroom with young people. In addition, online courses offer freedom to learners as they can attend classes at their own convenience. That is there is no time table as to the time and venue where the course will be taken. This makes it flexible and convenient to full time workers, employers, parents and any other person who cannot afford tim e to attend classes. Online education discriminates the poor who cannot access internet or computers at their homes (Rina 55). Since every development and advancement has both benefits and limitations, online learning has social, economic, social and technological limitations. By comparing the traditional mode of learning and the online education, traditional learning method has more beneficial factors to online education. Traditional education was not only gaining knowledge but it encouraged social interaction. By interacting with other people, one is able to gain courage and understand the real life experiences. In addition, group discussion is a motivating factor that helps students to face life with courage. Majority of those who support online education argue that it is time saving and cost effective. To be relevant, it saves the traveling time to students but to educators, it is not time saving compared to traditional education. This is because the educator has to respond to e very student’s query which is all different. It is difficult to address the requirements of students’ different backgrounds and cultural beliefs which might be different from the educational culture provided online (Siddiqui 92). In addition, online education is not convincing enough since the learner does not get the argumentative point to a response. To support traditional method, students and teachers are more exposed to subjects as they learn from each other (Yukiko 96). For instance, a student learns from another student views, the teacher’s stand, and this leads to better educators, therefore, better system. In addition, in one has access to a variety of materials to study like student’s centre, library, laboratories and writing centre. These facilities are not available in online learning and the learning environment may not be conducive for learning due to interruptions of children, unexpected visitors among other family issues. Online education l imits thinking capacity and narrows the development process of children (Dominguez 17). In the growth and development of children, it is important for them to interact socially and play together. With the introduction of online education, children sit behind a computer and perform his or her task. This is so boring to them and they may end up developing some flimsy characteristics. Traditional education gives room for interaction and sharing of idea in and out of classroom. This is because all students participate in group discussions and during break time, they are able to interact freely. Additionally, learning is not only books and exams, there is need to discuss factors affecting like. In traditional learning, instructors teach students social life as he or share life experiences (Beers 512). This is a way of guiding students on how to

Yeast Fermentation Essay Example for Free

Yeast Fermentation Essay The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of different amounts of a substrate on the respiration rate of yeast and to compare this to the effect of different amounts of glucose on the rate of yeast respiration. The substrate which I chose to further investigate was fructose. Fructose is a fruit sugar which is one of the three, along with glucose and galactose, dietary monosaccharides that are directly absorbed into the bloodstream during digestion. Materials: 2% yeast solution Large beaker Small beaker Conical flask Thermometer (Ë™C) Glass rod pH meter data logger Hot water Sensitive digital scale (g) Fructose (1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g, 2.5g) Glucose (1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g, 2.5g) Measuring cylinder (cm3) Variables Independent: Concentration of glucose (1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g, 2.5g) , concentration of fructose (1.0g, 1.5g, 2.0g, 2.5g) Dependent: Amount of carbon dioxide produced, i.e. rate of yeast respiration Controlled: 2% yeast solution (20cm3), initial temperature of yeast solution (35-40Ë™C), amount of time that the reaction is measured (180 seconds) Method †¢20cm3 of yeast solution was measured using a measuring cylinder and then  poured into a conical flask. †¢1.0g of glucose was weighed on a digital balance. †¢Hot wà ¡ter was poured into a large beaker, and the conical flask containing the yeast was placed inside with a thermometre inside. †¢The conical flask was kept inside The conical flask was held like this until the 2% yeast solution reached an initial temperature between 35-40Ë™C (specific temperature was noted down) When this temperature was reached, the thermometer was taken out of the conical flask and the conical flask out of the hot wate

Functionalist Theory Essay Example for Free

Functionalist Theory Essay The functionalist theory is one that views the society as one that is social system made up of interrelated components. Each of these components is important and works together towards the achievement of a whole complete society. A common analogy supporting the functionalist theory is the human body which has several body organs which usually work together with problems in one organ affecting the rest of the body. The major components within a society are customs, traditions, norms and institutions such as families. It is agreed among major functionalists that social institutions make the essential components of society with rules and regulations being needed so as to organize the society in an effective manner. Functionalism within the discipline of anthropology developed in the early 20th century as a reaction to the extremes of the diffusionist and evolutionary theories developed within the 19th century (Goldschmidt 1996). The change was as a result of a change in focus from the more speculative diachronic examination of cultural traits and social customs as survivals to a more synchronic examination of the various social institutions existing within functioning societies. Functionalists were attempting to increase socio-cultural examination beyond the limits of the evolutionary notion of social history which viewed cultural traits and social customs as the residual pieces of cultural history. The theory has anthropological roots based on the thoughts and works of Bronislaw Malinowski, who argued that social institutions existed so as to meet the physiological needs of individuals within a society. As such, social stability was achieved by ensuring the needs of the individuals comprising the society were met with adequate knowledge of the feelings and motives of these individuals forming a basis for understanding how the society functioned. He viewed culture as the main element that ensured the needs of the members of a society were met. It is also based on the works of Alfred Radcliffe-Brown who argued that the basic divisions of anthropology were the various processes of human life within a social structure interlinked through interactions. Stability within society was therefore achieved through social practices that would repeat themselves and develop overtime supporting each other. As such, he theorized functional analysis as the attempt to understand social stability by observing how these social practices would fit together. The functionalist theory is also based on the thoughts and works of major social positivists and was first theorized by Auguste Comte following the French revolution which resulted in social malaise. This led him to see the need for social cohesion within society. This was followed by the works of Emile Durkheim that advanced the theory of organic solidarity, whose major emphasis was on the fundamental function that ethical consensus played in ensuring social order as well as building an equilibrium within society. His main concern was how certain societies were able to maintain stability and be able to survive hence proposed that such societies are usually have subdivisions with the separate divisions being held mutually by common values and symbols. In addition, Talcott Parsons argued that a social system is usually one that is comprised of the actions of individuals who are faced with a variety of choices which in turn are influenced by several social and physical factors. He posited a social system that had four types of action systems which included culture, personality, organismic, and society, with each these four systems having to satisfy four functional needs which were latency, adaptation, integration, and goal attainment. His analysis involved studying the processes and trade offs of social structures within and between the four system levels (Turner and Maryanski 1991). Central principles in the functionalist theory Functionalist analysis studies the social importance of phenomena. It seeks to examine the various functions that these phenomena serve within a society in order to preserve the whole (Jarvie, 1973). According to Malinowski, the major concepts included: †¢ Understanding behavior based on an individual’s motivation in addition to both rational and irrational behavior; †¢ Recognizing the interrelationship of the various items which comprised a culture forming a system; and †¢ Recognizing a particular item and identifying its function within the contemporary operation of a culture. Radcliffe-Brown based his works on those of Emile Durkheim who had posited that social phenomena comprised a domain of reality that was independent of any biological or psychological facts. As such, social phenomena have to be explained in terms of the other social phenomena occurring within the domain (Broce, 1973). Radcliffe-Brown therefore studied the circumstances under which the various social structures are upheld within society. He developed an analogy between organic life and social life in order to be able to explain the idea of function hence placing emphasis on the contribution of phenomena to preserving social order. Functional analysis has given value to social institutions. This is because it considers them as integrated and active components of a social system and not as simple customs (Langness, 1987). Functionalism has also contributed to the current idea that traditional usages have been formed by the necessity that human beings have to live collectively in harmony. Its emphasis on exhaustive fieldwork has offered an in-depth study of human societies. In addition, the study of functional interrelationship between institutions and customs has provided a framework for collecting information on how societies function. Major criticisms There have been several criticisms raised against the functionalist theory leading to its decline. The functionalist theory has been criticized for its major ignorance towards historical process in addition to its presumption that societies exists in an equilibrium state (Goldschmidt, 1996). Interactionist theorists have criticized this theory due to its failure to conceptualize sufficiently the multifaceted nature of individual actors and the methods of interaction within societies. Marxist theorists have criticized functionalism due to its conservativism and the fixed nature of examination used that underlined the role of social phenomena in the preservation of the status-quo within society (Holmwood, 2005). Constructionist theorists have criticized functionalism due to the use of classificatory theories that characterized phenomena based on their functions (Turner and Maryanski, 1991). Responses to Critiques Comparative functionalism, developed by Walter Goldschmidt, attempts to respond to the difficulties that have developed as a result of Malinowskis argument that a culture can be comprehended on its own with institutions been seen as products of the various cultures within which they were created. Comparative functionalism seeks to understand institutional differences between cultures by examining phenomena within the different cultures and the problems experienced in these societies. This approach is worthwhile since it is aware of the universality of the functions to which social institutions are a response to. Problems are usually consistent from one culture to another culture, but the institutional solutions that will be needed will vary from one culture to another (Holmwood, 2005). As such, one begins with analyzing the problem so as to find out how institutional procedures provide solutions. Neo-functionalism is an attempt to revise British structural-functionalism. Some neo-functionalists seek to analyze phenomena based on particular functional requisites. Other neo-functionalists focus on matters of social integration, social evolution, and social differentiation. Others examine how the various cultural processes such as rituals, values, and ideologies integrate with social structures. However, neo-functionalism places little emphasis on how phenomena are able to meet system needs (Turner and Maryanski, 1991). This approach is worthwhile since it provides a bridge between human behavior, which frequently involves cooperation, and natural selection, where individual interaction involves competition more than cooperation. References Broce, G. (1973). History of Anthropology. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company. Goldschmidt, W. (1996). Functionalism. In Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, Vol 2. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Holmwood, J. (2005). Functionalism and its Critics, in Harrington, A. Modern Social Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jarvie, I. C. (1973). Functionalism. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company. Kuper, A. (1996). Anthropology and Anthropologists. London: Routledge. Langness, L. (1987). The Study of Culture. Novato, California: Chandler Sharp Publishers, Inc. Turner, J. H. Maryanski, A. (1991). Functionalism. In Borgatta, E. F, Encyclopedia of Sociology, Vol 2. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.